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| Winter/Spring 1992 Vol 4 No. 2/3 |
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"Any society that is alive is a society with a history."
-Vaclav Havel
WELCOME TO THE WONDERFUL WORLD
OF COMPUTERS VRS
PLANT CLOSURES GM STYLE
4 Years of Amateur Computerist
(Editor's Note: With this issue the Amateur Computerist begins its
5th year of publication. Also, we are including in this issue, a
complete index of back issues.)
February 11, 1988 was the first issue of the Amateur
Computerist. The issue was "dedicated to the Flint Sit Down
pioneers on the victory of their battle to win industrial unionism
51 years ago." ("Dedication", vol I, no 1)
In our first issue, we wrote: "There was an effort by
administrators of the UAW-Ford program at the Dearborn Engine Plant
to kill interest in computers and computer programming. We want to
keep interest alive because computers are the future."
("Introduction", vol I,no 1)
One UAW pioneer, Jack Palmer, in summing up the heritage the
sitdowners were passing on, wrote: "Each generation has to solve
its own problems. The sit-down generation solved the problem of
organization. The postwar (W.W.II-ed) generation solved the problem
of pensions and inflation. Not entirely, but a good start was
begun. The present generation is faced with the greatest problems
of all. They are Automation, Peace and Politics." (from the
Searchlight, newspaper of UAW Local 659, Flint, MI, April 21, 1960,
p.2, quoted in "Dedication", vol. I, no. 1). The Amateur
Computerist is an effort to carry forward the torch passed on by
the sitdowners - the need to solve the problem of automation.
The welcoming of this newsletter by Floyd Hoke-Miller, a pioneer
of the Flint Sitdown Strike, demonstrated that there was a
continuum between the Sitdown generation and the current genera-
tion. In his article, "Dawn of A New Era," Floyd wrote, "From the
Great Wall to the Great Pyramid, from the hieroglyphics to the
screen of the computer, mankind is still progressing. So make the
new born science, that has given us the computer for the amateur
and not as a prerogative of the professional to be shrouded in se-
crecy from humanity, the choice of the individual, not an election
of a minority. (vol I,no. 1)
But what has happened in the past 4 years? Has automation in the
auto industry made any headway? Has the use of computers and
computer education gone forward?
In February, 1992, GM announced plans for massive layoffs and
plant closings in North America. The high price of automobiles in
the U.S. shows that the problem of automation in the auto industry
has not been solved. Instead there have been disincentives to the
introduction of new technology in the U. S. auto industry similar
to those that led to the unraveling of the Soviet Union's so called
"command economy." A recent article in Fortune Magazine (vol. 125,
no. 1 January 13, 1992 "Can GM Remodel Itself?" by Alex Taylor III)
describes GM's inability to utilize new technology. "For example,"
Taylor writes, "GM put $77 billion into new plants and equipment to
reduce labor costs....Some robots it acquired in the mid-1980s
stand unused today. The highly automated equipment never delivered
the promised savings because GM did not train workers properly to
use it, and... failed to design new models for easy robot
assembly."(pg 34)
As articles in previous issues of the Amateur Computerist have
shown, investment in the U.S. auto industry in the 1980's was not
in automation that would result in less labor being needed to
produce an automobile. No effort was made to reduce the price of a
car so more people could afford to buy cars.
Instead, U.S. autos were downsized and redesigned, and some of
auto company profits were used to set up so called "joint"
labor-management labor relations programs or to invest in other
companies or abroad. (See for example, "Labor Relations Hoax", vol
2, no. 4) U.S. auto companies instituted a plethora of cost cutting
initiatives which removed the incentive for investment in new
technology. For a company to invest in modern technology, labor
saving devices must cost less than the labor they are replacing.
(See "Shorter Hours Are Needed....", vol 2, no. 3)
Record profits had been reported in the industry in the 1980s.
Yet Wall Street analysts like Maryann Keller sharply criticized new
technology being introduced into companies like GM. Instead GM
adopted the model of Japanese labor relations introduced into
Toyota in the 1950s. This model had been developed based on
research that GM conducted during a 1947 labor relations experiment
which they called the "My Jobs Contest." (See "When Will Their
Walls Come Tumbling Down," vol 3 no. 1) Once again in the 1980s and
now in the 1990s such labor relations schemes are being heralded as
the savior of a "failing General Motors" and as a model for the
rest of U.S. industry. For example, the design for GM's new Saturn
plant was premised on GM's commitment to making labor more intense
rather than introducing labor saving technology. A spokesperson
explains Saturn's philosophy:
"In Saturn, we believe that to automate... does not make good
business sense. When you consider the capital investment required
for robots or other automated systems, you have to look at the
variable labor cost as an alternative. Automated equipment is
limited! On the other hand, people, if properly trained, can and
have taken costs out of an operation when given the opportunity."
(Joseph F. Malotke, Labor Law Journal, Aug. 1985,p. 568)
GM's Saturn model is a reversal of lessons learned over the past
50 years about the social benefits of new machinery. As Howard
Foster, a UAW pioneer in Flint, describing the benefits of modern
machinery, explained: "When mass production methods were introduced
in the automobile industry, the price of cars went down. This was
because the labor time on each car was greatly reduced. Yet we auto
workers got higher wages through our union." (See "Technology: To
Develop or Stagnate," vol 1, no 2)
In opposition to similar labor relations experiments, G.M. auto
workers in Flint, MI, in 1947-48, successfully campaigned for wage
increases that would match inflation. Their battle against GM
management and the UAW International Union officialdom who opposed
such wage increases, was victorious. Thus pattern setting wage
increases known as C.O.L.A. (Cost of Living Adjustment) and A.I.F.
(Annual Improvement Factor) were introduced into the UAW-GM con-
tract in 1948. These wage increases made it profitable for GM to
introduce new machinery and update production methods in GM
plants.(See "Technology, to Develop or Stagnate" vol I,no 2)
By 1950, contract language describing the A.I.F. affirmed the
social desirability of using new technology to decrease the labor
needed to produce an auto. The 1950 GM-UAW contract granted workers
a wage increase based "on technological progress, better tools,
methods, processes and equipment and a cooperative attitude on the
part of all parties in such progress. It further recognizes the
principle that to produce more with the same amount of human effort
is a sound and economic and social objective." (See "Upcoming
Elections and Computers," vol. I, no.3)
Union-management jointness experiments of the 1980s are a
violation of the principle "that to produce more is a sound and
economical objective." The UAW-Ford National Development and
Training Center founded in 1982, and similar experiments at GM and
Chrysler, are labor relations experiments. Their aim is to "promote
training, retraining and development activities," instead of
"technological progress, better tools, processes and equipment,"
(See "Labor Relations Hoax," vol. 2, no. 4)
Because their aim is not education in high technology, there was
a battle at the Dearborn Engine Plant over the cancellation of
computer programming classes. UAW members wrote: "How can UAW
members be trained in high technology by cutting computer classes
out... we sent letters everywhere. We are tired of being denied
benefits we're entitled to. We are tired of being shuffled from one
person to another to cover up who we're fighting...we can't sit
back and let happen at the Rouge what has happened at GM - the
wholesale closing of plants...WE NEED AN INVESTIGATION INTO WHAT IS
GOING ON IN THE UAW FORD PROGRAM at the Dearborn Engine Plant. (See
"When Will Their Walls Come Down, vol. 3, no. 1)
In a subsequent issue of the Amateur Computerist, Floyd
Hoke-Miller contributed articles explaining why there is more
thinking needed among those who do the work of the society. "We, as
the working class," he wrote, "are the `low men on the totem pole'
or like Atlas `bearing the world on our shoulders'." (See "Pass the
Profits, Please," vol. 1, no. 2) He championed the need for fewer
hours of work to have any benefit from new technology and reminded
workers that they are still working at least the same 8 hour day
"gained by a hard struggle of the transportation unions prior to
W.W.I." (Ibid., See also "Shorter Hours are Needed for Computers to
Benefit Labor", vol 2, no. 3)
The problem of the 1990s is similar to the problem of the early
post W.W.II years - how to utilize significant new technological
developments to make life better for the people of the society.
Large scale industry needs to be under some form of social control
and strict regulation for technological progress to serve the
society.
The birth of the personal computer in 1974 and its development
and evolution into the 1990s has put the promise of a better world
on the horizon for people in the U.S. and around the world. At the
computer classes at the Ford Rouge Plant, before the programming
classes were cancelled to make way for the labor relations
experiments that replaced them, one auto worker wrote: "Welcome to
the Wonderful World of the Computer." The cancelling of those
classes in 1987 has made clear that that wonderful world cannot be
gained by going backward to ever more labor intensive production,
(i.e. speed up), less and less manufacturing capacity (shortages),
and ever increasing prices. This is the economic program that U.S.
corporations and the U.S. government are promoting in Eastern
Europe and the result is massive human hardship and economic
dislocation. This economic program will result in the same economic
dislocations in the U.S. economy as are currently plaguing Eastern
Europe.
Thus once again, as in the immediate post W.W.II period, there
are serious economic problems in the U.S. and the world. There is
a need to have auto workers and others, particularly those who work
in large scale industry, consider and debate the economic problems
of our times. History has shown that this is the only way that
solutions which lead the society forward can be found. Prohibitions
against workers writing in their local union newspapers to prevent
public criticisms of trade union officials or policies, as exist in
the UAW, need to be overturned. (See for example Convention Pro-
ceedings of 1951 UAW Convention and UAW Public Review decisions
like No. 888, Bier vrs. Local Union 2500 Executive Board, UAW, and
No. 238, Plyer vrs. Local 599 (1961))
As Carl Johnson, a UAW pioneer explained, auto workers are
capable of solving the problems facing them if they have access to
organs of free discussion. Johnson wrote: "If local union publi-
cations...provide the ranks with a freer discussion which alone can
prepare the ranks for the fight which is sure to be plenty tough,
then we need not worry too much, for American labor proved in '36
and '37 that it can move fast and furiously when it knows where to
go."(Carl Johnson, "Only More Democracy Can Save Democracy," Feb.
1, 1945, The Searchlight, UAW Local 659, Flint)
Describing the important role to be filled by an uncensored
labor press, he wrote,"If the Labor press does not try to give
Labor the whole truth, where will Labor get it? This, of course,
raises the question: Who is right about Labor's destiny? Certainly
we can't rely on the capitalist press to tell us, for it is obvious
that their interest is the opposite of Labor's interest. But who,
from the ranks of Labor? Let them all speak -- that's what Free
Speech was intended for! Let them all present their view in a
forum. From that the reader will have a fair chance to decide."
(Ibid., Oct. 29, 1949)
Once again, in 1992, there is the need for access to the uncen-
sored local union newspaper. This tradition was pioneered by auto
workers in Flint in the 1940's to carry on the militant Spirit of
the Sit Down Strike, the "Spirit of '37." This press made it
possible for those who do the work of the society to be able to
analyze the current problems and debate the way forward. This
uncensored labor press no longer exists, but computer bulletin
boards across the U.S. and the world are providing access to uncen-
sored discussion so the momentous problems of our times can be
debated and analyzed. On computer bulletin boards like Usenet
News, MNET (Ann Arbor, MI), etc., such discussion is now taking
place. (We plan to include articles describing this important
development in future issues.) Also, there is a need for education,
independent of large corporate employers like GM or Ford, and for
a press to express a working class voice, independent, as well, of
any censorship from union officials. To this end the Amateur Comp-
uterist is dedicated and we need and welcome your participation in
helping to create this independent voice so as to be able to gain
the fruits of the computer revolution for those who do the work of
this society.
Floyd Hoke-Miller, a pioneer of the Flint Sitdown Strike wrote
the following poem as part of his commitment to the need for an
uncensored press:
Voice of the Chevrolet Worker
It matters not what bossman say,
How much they rant and rave
Their Sunday suit and higher pay,
Do not exclude the grave.
***
The wage-slaves toil at their behest,
Producing only by their word
There's no denying one request,
Their voices must be heard.
***
They know quite well that banker men,
And owners of the tools
Connive with pie cards when they can,
To treat the laborers as fools.
***
Their language may not stand all tests,
But let them have their say
For on their backs the burden rests,
They MAKE the Chevrolet.
by Floyd Hoke-Miller
AMATEUR COMPUTERIST INDEX
Volume 1 No 1
INTRODUCTION
DAWN OF A NEW ERA
DEDICATION
THE WORLD OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS
TRY THIS (GRAPHICS)
THE FUTURE BELONGS TO PROGRAMMERS
THE FIRST PROGRAMMER (PICTURE)
WHY LEARN PROGRAMMING
COVER OF PERSONAL COMPUTING (PICTURE)
COMMODORE TIPS & TRICKS
Volume 1 No 2
THE BIG MACHINE
PASS THE PROFITS, PLEASE
TECHNOLOGY: TO DEVELOP OR STAGNATE?
CARTOON BY "DOC" WILSON
SAMPLE BASIC GRAPHIC PROGRAM
TRY THIS (IBM)
THE WORLD OF TELECOM... CORRECTIONS
GERMAN VOCABULARY HELPER
PROGRAMMING IN BASIC OR C?
CONFIGURING YOUR SYSTEM
LETTER TO THE EDITOR
Volume 1 No 3
LETTER PUBLISHED IN RADIO-ELECTRONICS
RESPONSES FROM AROUND THE COUNTRY
EDITORIAL
SAVIOR IN WAITING
HOW TO USE THE MERIT NETWORK?
VIRTUAL DRIVES & BATCH FILES
TRY THIS (EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE)
AS I WAS SAYING... (WHY COMPUTERISM?)
COMPUTERS AND FREE SPEECH
LETTER TO THE EDITOR
PLANT LIFE (PICTURE)
Volume 2 No 1
RETURN TO SANITY WITH THE AMATEUR & THE PRO
LETTERS FROM READERS
PROBLEM CORNER
TRY THIS FOR IBM (INPUT NUMBER FROM 20-150)
SYSTEM DIAGRAM FOR QUADRAPHONIC SOUND SYS.)
RESPONSE TO OCTOBER EDITORIAL
CARTOONS (COMMODORE COUNTY)
WELCOME TO COMMODORE COUNTY USA
COMPUTER HACKING, A CRIME?
IBM KEY ASSIGNMENTS USING THE "PROMPT"...
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS... PART I
Volume 2 No 2
WHY LEARN TO PROGRAM? (DISCUSSION)
LETTERS
TRY THIS (MESSAGE)
"SE Q" FOR IBM
AS I WAS SAYING (JOBS: HOURS AND SENSE...)
OVERTIME AND UNDER PAY
MAY DAY
SAMPLE BATCH FILE
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS PART II
Volume 2 No 3
IMPACT OF COMPUTERS ON SOCIETY: A DEBATE
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
COCO CORNER (GRAIL QUEST-PIP)
COMMODORE COUNTY USA (CURSOR COLOR CHANGE)
OUT OF THE HEART OF THE ABACUS...
HISTORY OF THE COMPUTER PART III
Volume 2 No 4
LETTER FROM PROSECUTOR
OPPOSING VIEWPOINT...
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
WANTED ALIVE (AD)
COCO CORNER (EQUATION GRAPHING PRG.)
TRUE HEROES
TRIGONOMETRY LESSON FOR IBM
HISTORY OF THE COMPUTER PART IV
Volume 3 No 1
LETTER FROM EDITOR OF DETROIT NEWS
DON'T REPLICATE UAW-FORD SCHOOL
LETTERS TO EDITOR
COMMODORE COUNTY USA (CARTOON)
THE SPIRIT OF BABBAGE
COCO CORNER (POKE & PEAK)
CAD/CAM/CIM
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS PART V
Volume 3 No 2
THE LABORER, YES
FLOYD HOKE-MILLER (1898-1990)
THE PICKET
IN HONOR OF LABOR'S POET LAUREATE
COMPUTER EDUCATION AND GOVERNMENT REG.
LETTER FROM SUPERINTENDENT
OPEN LETTER TO SUPERINTENDENT BEMIS
LETTER TO GOVERNOR
COMMODORE COUNTY U.S.A. (SHIMMERING TEXT)
C64 MUSIC DIGITIZER
IBM LABEL PROGRAM
COCO CORNER (CALORIE COUNTER)
BULLETIN BOARD NUMBERS
Volume 3 No 3
WHAT CRITICISMS HAVE YOU OF THE A.C.?
TIPS AND TRICKS (IBM BOOT PROBLEM)
LETTER TO EDITOR
EDITORIAL
A COMMON MAN OF GREATNESS
COCO CORNER (CORRECTION)
EXCERPTS FORM BBS (DISCUSSION-TRADE UNIONS)
COMMODORE C64 RESET SWITCH
DIAGRAM #1 (FOR RESET SWITCH)
Volume 3 No 4
HATS OFF TO PATRIOT
AMATEURS ARE NEEDED MORE THAN EVER
COCO CORNER (MORE POKE & PEAK)
BRINGING AUTOMATION HOME
COMPUTER BBS DISCUSSION ON THE WAR
COMPUTERS FOR THE PEOPLE: PART I
Volume 4 No 1
COMPUTERS FOR THE PEOPLE - A HISTORY PART II
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
TEN COMMANDMENTS OF GOOD NETWORKING
TRY THIS PROGRAM (GRAPHIC "HI")
THE USSR AND THE COMPUTER
COMMAND LINE CALCULATOR
THE QUESTION OF CENSORSHIP
PROBLEM CORNER
I have a problem and I'm hoping that somebody can help. I
upgraded my XT compatible by installing high density floppy drives
and they work just fine, but when I put a 360K or a 720K diskette
in, it will not read it unless I reboot. After using the low
density diskettes I must reboot again before I can use high density
diskettes. Is there something I can do to make the computer read
the floppy whatever the diskette is?
PUZZLED
UNION FOREVER
Tho' politicians come and politicians
go
Let Unionism go on forever.
But vote for him whose records show
He kept the workers' cause his first
endeavor.
Now has he fought for higher wages
And the thirty-hour week;
The dream through the ages
Of the lowly and the weak.
Because machines are taking powers
That were our jobs of yesterday
But it's the same old tedious hours
With the same old lousy pay.
by Floyd Hoke-Miller
Letter To The Editor
(Editor's Note: The following letter by a staff member of this
newsletter was recently published in the Columbia Daily Spectator
in N.Y.C.)
To the Editor,
Probably unbeknownst to many students, the rally and entering of
Low Memorial Library on Tuesday, February 11, 1992, was in the
tradition of a glorious victory that took place 55 years ago. On
February 11, 1937, General Motors autoworkers in Flint, Michigan
emerged from the factories they had occupied, victorious. As part
of a long series of strikes nationwide, this forty-four day long
Sit-Down Strike won GM autoworkers the right to have the United
Auto Workers (UAW) represent them as their bargaining agent to GM.
This was the beginning of the official recognition of the UAW by
auto manufacturers.
The sit-in at Columbia to achieve more of a student voice in
University decision making is a poignant reminder of the similar
fight that occurred 55 years ago in Flint, Michigan. Just as those
workers fought the auto industry for a voice, the students of
Columbia are likewise fighting to have their voice heard. By
learning more of the tradition behind the battle for democratic
rights, we shall be stronger.
Michael Hauben
Letters to Amateur Computerist
Dear Editor:
Along with your history of computers, there is one bit of
government action your readers might find interesting. In the late
'50s the U.S. government had at least three competitors in the
running for a contract to design a computer utility. The phone, the
electric, the gas, and the computer were all to be durable and
available for Americans.
The names that took part in the design competition were
Dartmouth with its DTSS time-sharing system, Bell Labs with the
forerunner of the now popular Unix, and MIT with Multics.
Unix, you are all familiar with now. Dartmouth time-sharing,
last I knew, was still a basic entry level operating system running
at least at GM Tech Center on a dual big box Honeywell system.
MIT won the contract with its Multics operating system. General
Electric won the contract to build the iron to fit the then
existing software. The GE645 computer hit the field in 1962 with
absolutely no fanfare whatever. (The government's support
evaporated somewhere around this time.) Multics languished around
the military and institutions for the next twenty years. Honeywell
entered the picture when the government refused to allow GE to buy
out Honeywell's computer department. So instead they sold out to
Honeywell. Honeywell Info Systems was a poor company. The de-
velopment money was non-existent. With the financial crisis of the
'70s many attempts were made to terminate Multics. The necessary
iron to run the system was more complicated than Honeywell was
willing to spend the money to speed up, so the generation of vlsi
was never developed. Honeywell Info Systems was in big trouble in
the '80s, the French bought the company and it is now _Bull.
As to software, Multics is still the undisputed king of
security, flexibility, purity of design, and ease of use (after
learning). Near what appeared to me to be the end of its troubled
history, Multics had earned the B2 level of security from the
National Security Administration. If anyone listened to them,
Multics is the only machine any government entity is allowed to
use. The main problem with selling or describing Multics is that no
outsider has any frame of reference to it. Ford Research Center is
the largest user of Multics. Management made a determined effort to
stop development and get off Multics when the product was scraped
by Honeywell in 1985. To this day no replacement has been found to
even approximate the most basic functionality inherent in Multics
from its early days.
The system is fully paged and segmented, gated, ring bracketed
protected and written 99.96% in PL/1. Even most of the PL/1
compiler is written in an escalating style of PL/1. Most big box
operating systems have a known errors file a foot thick. Multics
had no known errors. Ford did run into an upper limit in that no
single array could be larger than 1 megabyte and you could have no
more than 256K segments (programs, objects) open at one time to a
single process (the program in control of the job flow). Locally
they moved those limits up a ways.
When I left, two systems were in use by Ford world wide and were
as large as the iron would allow. Six processors, 64 megabytes of
memory, a sea of disk drives and every known style of communica-
tions device and protocol. A system, new in 1985, had cast the
ultimate computer for the world, that of, Multics hooked at 50
megabaud to a Cray XMP.
Rick Strome
Dearborn Multics hardware repair till 1986
Dear Sir,
I have read in Hacktic that you make the magazine THE AMATEUR
COMPUTERIST. I don't know the price of your magazine or what the
magazine contains therefore I have a question. What is the price of
your magazine and how can I be a member? I hope you would answer my
questions and I would appreciate it when you send me a sample
issue. I am looking forward to receiving your reply, meanwhile
hearty thanks.
Yours Truly
R.H.SMIT
THE NETHERLANDS
Open Letter to Editor of Utne Reader
(Editor's Note: This letter was sent to the editor of the Utne
Reader. It was not published.)
Dear Editor,
Instead of pointing to important articles in the 'zine press in
"Notes from Underground" (Nov/Dec issue), your article
mischaracterizes this section of the alternative press as
`unconventional' and `obscure'. For example, you write:
"There are few 'zines coming from minority or working-class
communities... proportionally fewer women publish 'zines than men,
and when they do, they tend to be feminist or Pagan-oriented."
I am one of the editors of a 'zine that comes from a working
class community and this 'zine is neither `feminist' nor
`Pagan-oriented'. A recently published book, Technoculture, by
Andrew Ross and Constance Pawley, (University of Minnesota Press,
1991, p. 125) describes our newsletter:
"When worker education classes in computer programming were
discontinued by management at the Ford Rouge Plant in Dearborn,
Michigan, United Auto Workers members began to publish a newsletter
called the Amateur Computerist to fill the gap. Among the
columnists and correspondents in the magazine have been veterans of
the Flint sit-down strikes who see a clear historical continuity
between the problem of labor organization in the thirties and the
problem of automation and deskilling today. Workers' computer
literacy is seen as essential not only to the demystification of
the computer and the reskilling of workers, but also to labor's
capacity to intervene in decisions about new technologies that
might result in shorter hours and thus in `work efficiency' rather
than worker efficiency."
It would be good to have Utne Reader include worthy reprints
from 'zines like the Amateur Computerist as this is a part of the
alternative press which provides a rarely heard voice in American
society.
Sincerely,
Ronda Hauben
Review from the æPERIPHERAL
ISSUE 20 FEBRUARY 1992
(Editor's Note: This review of the Amateur Computerist appeared in
an Australian computer newsletter. We are reprinting it because of
the interesting historical coincidence it points out regarding the
appearance of the first Australian kit computer distributed in a
popular electronics magazine.)
THE AMATEUR COMPUTERIST
We received an exchange copy of Vol 4,No 1, for Fall 1991, from
Ronda Hauben, P.O. Box 4344, Dearborn, Mi. 48126 USA. A twelve page
double column issue, featuring how hackers gave birth to the
personal computer (second part of a four part series) covering
ENIAC, David Ahl and Creative Computing, the Dartmouth Basic of
Kemeny and Kurtz, Ted Nelson's wonderful book Computer Lib, and
Jonathan Titus' Mark 8 computer in Radio Electronics. Incidently,
Jim Rowe's all TTL EDUC-8 in Electronics Australia missed out by
one month in being the first kit computer circuit distributed in a
popular electronics magazine, and it was the Mark 8 which appeared
first.
OK, other articles include ten commandments on networking
(mostly Novell on PCs), a short on USSR computers, a command line
calculator in Quick C which does trigs, powers and root (about 300
lines) plus letters.
Ronda asked by E-mail whether anyone knows of other computer
magazine editors who can be reached by E-mail? Her address is:
au329@cleveland.freenet.edu
( æPeripheral is available from Eric Lindsay, 6 Hillcrest Avenue,
Faulconbridge, NSW, 2776, Australia. Electronic Mail Address:
eric@zen.maths.uts.edu.au. )
Tribute to a Modern Computer Pioneer:
Grace Hopper (1906-1992)
A New York Times headline on January 3, 1992 read: "Rear Adm.
Grace M. Hopper Dies; Innovator in Computers was 85." She had died
at home New Year's Day after a recent illness. Until then, Grace
Hopper had been involved with computers and computer programming
since 1944. As one of the pioneers of modern computing, her life
exemplifies the activities and goals that propelled computing for-
ward.
Hopper joined the U.S. Navy during World War II. Having a Ph.D.
in mathematics, after Midshipman's school, she was assigned to the
Bureau of Ships Computational Project at Harvard University. Her
first day at the Project, she met Howard Aiken and his new
calculating apparatus. The Mark I, as it was called, was 51 feet
long, 8 feet high, 2 feet thick, weighing 4 tons. It had three
quarters of a million parts, 500 miles of wiring and three million
wire connectors. In order to operate this first operational program
controlled computer made in America, rotary knob like switches had
to be set manually. Hopper was fascinated by the challenge of such
a gadget having been a tinkerer when she was a kid. One story is
told of how as a girl she dismantled and reassembled all the
family's alarm clocks. Aikin handed her a code book and asked her
to work out the coefficients for the interpolation of the arc
tangent function to be entered into the Mark I. It was a sudden but
exciting introduction to her first computer. She was 37 years old
at the time.
Aiken helped all his colleagues deal with their new tasks by
suggesting that they read portions of Charles Babbage's writings.
Hopper appreciated the importance of such reading. She recalled
that when she was growing up, "Each summer we had to read 20 books
and write reports on them. You were educated and had some
background when you were through then. It gave us an interest in
reading and in history." Aiken also assigned Hopper to write the
first operation manual for the Mark I which she did as well as
eventually writing over 50 articles, especially on programming.
The Mark I was the first computer to be sequentially programmed
and Hopper was at it from its beginning. Since at the time
programming essentially meant writing out strings of numbers as
switch settings, codings, operating and plugging instructions,
etc., errors could easily be made. Also many strings of numbers had
to be repeated frequently. So the habit arose of writing out pieces
of code that were already checked out in notebooks and passing the
notebooks around to be copied from when needed.
During the summer of 1947 there was trouble with the Mark II
computer (successor to Mark I.) The trouble was traced to a
mechanical relay in which a moth had been trapped and beaten to
death. The body of the moth was removed with tweezers and taped
into the log book as the cause of the problem. Grace Hopper is
given credit for coining the term "bug" for computer problems and
for the explanation to Aiken when he asked what's holding up the
numbers, that she and others were "debugging" the machine.
Hopper left Harvard in 1949 and joined the Eckert-Mauchly
Corporation which was working on building its UNIVAC I. Programming
for computers like Mark I, II, III and UNIVAC I was necessarily in
full detail including at times the specification of individual bit
patterns and number strings. But many programs contained identical
subroutines or subprograms even though the total objective of such
programs may have differed. Hopper energetically encouraged the
gathering of such subroutines into permanent subroutine libraries.
She also spearheaded an effort to program computers to utilize such
subroutines. The idea was to create a program that could receive as
input a set of high level spoken language-like commands and produce
as output an integrated program made up of appropriate subroutines.
In order to create such a program, Hopper had to overcome the
prevailing prejudice that computers could do wonders at arithmetic
but could not do analytic work like programming. She and her team
at Rand Corporation succeeded at creating the A-O and other
compilers that showed the cynics were too limited in their
expectations of what computers would be able to do.
Also in her quest to show that the new machines were more than
number crunchers, Hopper sought to demonstrate their analytic
capabilities. One such program she wrote was designed to take as
input mathematical functions and gave as output the derivative of
such functions. Upon seeing the program perform, one researcher who
had spent months finding the first 15 derivatives of a complicated
function, insisted that Hopper must have had some hidden person
feeding the derivatives into the computer. He felt no machine could
do in eighteen minutes what it had taken him 6 months to do. (from
Robert Slater, Portraits in Silicon, Cambridge Mass, 1987)
Hopper had succeeded in demonstrating that the computer was
basically a symbol manipulator: whether the symbols were numbers,
letters, words or other data structures, was a detail for the
programmer, not a complication for the computer. She drove this
home by writing a compiler that could receive high level code
written in English, French or German. Again, someone who saw this
program in operation could not believe a computer made in the U.S.
could understand European languages and wondered what the trick
was. Based on this work, by 1957, Hopper and her staff had created
"Flow-matic," the first computer language employing words. (Ibid.,
p. 225)
Hopper's work on "Flow-matic" was seminal and was followed by
other achievements such as Commercial Translator by IBM. But Hopper
and others saw a danger in the prospect of having many different
languages. She was, therefore, part of the process of creating
COBOL, an easy to read machine independent language not identified
with any specific computer manufacturer. There were those who
denounced COBOL because of its flaws and a rumor spread that it was
dead. But COBOL has in fact, like BASIC, opened the door to a
significantly large universe of users and it is still in use today
30 years after its introduction. Her work in support of COBOL was
part of Hopper's campaign for standards for languages, archi-
tectures, data structures and networks, standards set for the use
of all and not by any dominant firm.
From 1944 until her death New Year's Day 1992, Grace Hopper
spent her life pushing the use of computers forward and also
spreading that use. She especially enjoyed the opportunity to
challenge young people to explore and develop the most infinite
possibilities she saw inherent in computer technology. Her
understanding was that we are today just "at the very beginning of
the mass use of the computer. We haven't even begun to exploit its
potential." (Marguerite Zientara, The History of Computing, A
Biographical Portrait of the Visionaries Who Shaped the Destiny of
the Computer Industry, Framingham, 1981, p. 53)
Interview with Staff Member Michael Hauben on the Occasion of the
10th Anniversary of the Personal Computer
Part I
(Editor's Note: This interview was conducted on August 11, 1991. It
has been edited.)
Ronda: Tomorrow is the 10th anniversary of the introduction of
the IBM personal computer on August 12, 1981. Also, one of our
staff members, Michael Hauben, is leaving Michigan to go to college
in N.Y. Therefore, it seemed an appropriate time to look back on
the past 10 years and to review how the introduction of the
personal computer has affected our lives. Michael is now 18. In
1981 he was 8 years old and already involved with computers.
Michael is not only one of the beneficiaries of the computer
revolution. The computer revolution was carried out, not so much by
companies like IBM, but more importantly, by computer hobbyists
like Michael Hauben. Thus in honor of the computer hobbyists, who
gave birth to and developed the personal computer, we would like to
review some of your experiences, Michael, with the computer.
Bill: How did you get started with computers?
Michael: The first place I really saw computers was at an
exhibit in Toronto over 10 years ago. There was a robot that was
like the 4 axes machine that auto workers use. They also had a
computer exhibit. I don't remember what kind of computer was on
display but they were just a bunch of computers running different
kinds of programs set up there at the Canadian National Exhibit.
That really peaked my interest somehow.
When I was 8 (in 1981), I took a computer class at Schoolcraft
Community College, in what was called the Kids College. It was part
of what they called the TAG (Talented and Gifted) Program. The
teacher's name was Mrs. Brown. We learned on the Apple II+'s. The
first day of class, Mrs. Brown lifted the top of the APPLE and
said, "There, that's all there is to it, There's nothing to be
afraid of." That was a very good introduction to the computer
because it showed there was nothing to be afraid of. That we could
completely control it. I learned BASIC there. I took several other
classes in that program. I think I took three. I didn't take all
the BASIC language classes offered. But I took a test that they had
for their normal BASIC college level classes and I wound up getting
three college credits for the BASIC language class. And I didn't do
so good because I ended up only getting a B on the test. But the
experience was interesting and from then on whenever there was a
computer available I tried to use it.
After the trip to Toronto, I always wanted to buy a computer.
There was the Texas Instruments 99/4a (TI 99/4a) and I don't
remember how much it cost, but it was expensive. There was the
Timex Sinclair 1000 (TS 1000) and that was much cheaper. My family
and I had seen sinclair computers in England when we visited. These
computers could be hooked up to a normal t.v. set. I saved up my
money and bought a TS-1000. Using it I more thoroughly learned
BASIC. My father and I programmed a lot in BASIC with only 2K
memory. We never seemed to run out of memory. We just played around
and tried to do lots of different things, tried writing little
games, graphics and we dabbled a little in machine language, not a
lot however. Whenever I had the chance, whether it was summer camp
or in a computer store, I'd try to do something with the computer.
I learned BASIC, I learned LOGO on the TI-99/4a in Camp, and I
played around with APPLES and with Commodore PETS. In my elementary
school, there was a terminal hooked in with the mainframe of the
Dearborn Schools. At that time there were many programs on the
mainframe. They had BASIC. They had games like the OREGON TRAIL,
etc. I subscribed to two or three magazines for the TS-1000. I
bought books, did all the TRY THIS type of small programs. Those
were always fun because there would always be problems with the
programs. There would always be bugs. The books and sample programs
were exciting somehow. I haven't found many books similar for
programming on the IBM Pcs today, books that I have found exciting
for a hobbyist. And this is sad.
Soon after I bought the TS-1000, it couldn't have been more than
a couple of years, I was trying to choose between the TS-2068 and
the Commodore 64. I think the Commodore was more expensive. The
TS-2068 had better color, and a more developed version of BASIC.
The Commodore 64 was better in that it had a disk drive and the
TS-1000 only had a tape drive you could use. The Commodore also had
a real keyboard, while the Timex utilized raised chicklets. I
bought the TS-2068. Then I had my first real lesson in the computer
world. Three months after I bought the TS-2068, Timex stopped
selling it and supporting it. Timex made a deal with Commodore.
There was an agreement to sell the Sinclair in England and Europe
and Commodore in the United States. That was a shock because I
thought I made a better choice, but it turned out the better deal
is not always the best choice.
And my father and I did programming on that, but not really as
much as we did on the TS-1000. It was a lot less, even though there
was the added attraction of the color and the sound and the
joystick port. And so I still did things and I tried to pick up on
things whenever I could.
Christmas of 1984, we bought a Sanyo MBC-550-2 which was a MS-
Dos compatible, but not an IBM compatible, machine. The operating
system was IBM compatible, but the graphics were different, the
sound was different, and the BASIC was different. The Sanyo was a
better machine for graphics, I think 640 x 400 with 4 colors if not
16. And Wordstar worked. That's why my family got it -- as a
wordprocessor. I learned MS-Dos. I got more into the PC world. We
subscribed to a Sanyo magazine for a while. We went to the Sanyo
Users' groups for a while. We occasionally went to SEMCO (Southeast
Michigan Computer Organization), but somehow that was already
oriented toward business and they weren't very interested in
helping us. Then in 1985, through INACOMP, my mother won a Compaq
Portable. It was one of the earliest to come out that was fully IBM
compatible. It was a luggable portable, and it weighed about 20
pounds, if not more. And that's how I really got into IBM. We had
a choice between a modem and a hard drive. We got a modem. It was
a breakthrough. The hard drive seemed important but the modem was
more important. We wound up getting a hard drive later on. With the
modem, it lets you connect to the outside world. With your own
little system you'd be like a hermit, but in connecting with the
rest of the world, it's other people's opinions, different discus-
sions about computers, about current events, debates about what's
going on in the world and just general BS also. And you came into
contact with people, you came into contact with different files to
use with your computer, with what was going on with the computer
scene and so somehow it was like a replacement for a user group.
And depending upon the time, there was either a lot going on or a
little going on.
Ronda: What do you mean?
Michael: Well right now not many boards I know have much debate
on them. There are two that I am on. Both of them have debates on-
going. I'm sure there are others, but I just haven't had time to
look. But for a while I was on many of the boards and at one point
many of the boards were silly contests to see who could post the
most numerous messages.
Ronda: Do you have a sense what you were looking for on the
BBS's? You used to spend a lot of time on them.
Michael: Well at first I wasn't on local BBS's. Originally, I
was on COMPUSERVE.
Bill: Free time?
M: Well, the first two hours were free. I almost became a Beta
Tester for Infocom through Compuserve. I sent in the application
forms. I then received a congratulations letter, but Infocom never
sent me any games to test. The only response was a Christmas card.
That was a soured Compuserve memory. I found some local BBS numbers
listed on Compuserve and from my father and some friends of his
from work. For a while I was mostly on Commodore BBS's and not many
IBM boards. But then I started calling the IBM boards. It was new
for me when I started. Modeming was a connection to the outside
world to other people with similar interests. It was interesting --
the debates about current events. Somehow there was the possibility
for intellectual discussion which I couldn't find elsewhere besides
my parents and a few friends like Floyd Hoke-Miller. But among my
friends at school or neighbors, there wasn't much of a possibility.
When we lived in East Dearborn, our next door neighbor, Tom, had
an Atari and a Commodore 64. He shared an interest in computers
with me. He was my friend, even though there was a large age gap,
because we were both interested in computers. He let me come over
and try some things on his computer and I'd go with him to computer
stores.
Bill: Another thing about modems you can't tell the age. Treats
you more like an equal.
Michael: There's an anonymity. You don't know anything about the
other users. So you are more willing to accept them. There are
still first impressions. If you act like a real idiot, people won't
like you. But the full element of first impressions is left out.
And people tend to rank you or be friends with you on how you act
on-line, what you speak about. It does help. You tend to get to
know the people and there isn't as much blocking. And my first
handle was Wizkid. I changed my handle 2 or 3 years ago to
Sentinel. And there was one person who signed on and said it was
great knowing you. He was one of the people who knew me as Wizkid.
There was a "Remembering the OLD Days" theme area on one of the
BBS's and someone said, "remember that Wizkid." And I said, "that
was me." And he said he didn't know that. When people change their
handles, it's public but somehow people don't always realize it.
When I changed my handle, I decreased my activity. When I decreased
my activity it was because there were just silly messages that
didn't mean anything, or they just seemed juvenile, and I don't
know if that's because the people calling were younger or they were
more juvenile. The way people accept you is based on your maturity
on-line and your maturity showed through more than your age. And
there was one debate where someone said you are just a kid. And I
used to have the handle Wizkid. But it didn't matter what your age
was, it was more how mature you were. He was trying to say "Well
you're just a kid, you can't know anything." But he was wrong. So
there is less age discrimination on the boards.
Ronda: Why did you decrease the time you spent on the boards?
Michael: I had to spend more time with school, with friends,
with my job. Whenever I used to come home from school, I used to
spend 2 or 3 hours, but then my mom said, "We need the phone." So
I didn't spend my free time before homework on the modem. And then
with work, I wasn't even home on certain days to use the modem.
Ronda: But it seemed you were also a little disappointed. There
were user parties, but it seemed the computer world didn't extend
outside of the modem.
Michael: It did to a certain extent, but it didn't include
everyone. Like some people were friends before. There were modem
parties where people from the boards got together, whether it was
a software swap or a party.
Ronda: There weren't many, were there?
Michael: Well, what happened was the main person who had the
parties was from a TAG board in Taylor. He had his computer stolen
after the 2nd or 3rd party. So he stopped holding them. Then there
were multi-user boards. There was MNET which was a multi-user. The
general ages of the users on M-Net was older than on the other
single-user BBS's. And it was more serious. It was more a UNIX
board. It was a different bunch. It was not the home but the people
in school, in Ann Arbor. It seemed like the multi-user boards made
it easier to hold parties because users could chat live one-on-one.
And when AMUSERS (a multi-user board) closed down, I didn't get on
other multi-users that were like AMUSERS. Some people already were
friends but you didn't end up doing much so it was a little
disappointing. Cause it didn't seem like there was any -- it didn't
get anywhere -- it was just on-line so that was a little
disconcerting. It was disappointing because that was where I had
found more intellectual people but it didn't go anywhere. And
things like COMPUSERVE cost a lot of money. There's COMPUSERVE,
there's Delphi, there's Geni, there's PC Link, there's Q-link,
there's a couple of services but they all cost money, so that's
hard to deal with. And then there are bigger boards that exist. But
they all cost money. There's the WELL. That's in California. You
also pay per hour like Compuserve. So it's harder to be on. It's
like M-Net. It's the same software as M-Net. And maybe I did find
it disappointing. It used to be there would be lots of new BBS's
popping up. But they were interesting. And now there still are lots
of new BBS's popping up. But they're silly. So it's gone downhill
a little bit. And also BBS's are similar to the CB or the Ham radio
in that people voice their opinions, or have discussions or chat or
there used to be DDial's -- all they were were multi-user, people
chatting, but they were 300 baud so they were super slow. Some of
those you had to acquire membership. But they were linked up across
the country. There were things called LINKS that would connect you
to other DDials around the country. So that way you could talk to
people.
Somehow the thing about BBS's was it was the ultimate vehicle of
Free Speech, uncensored speech. For the most part things were not
censored. What you posted was left alone. It was like everyone's
Letter to the Editor was allowed to be printed. There would be
letters debating other previous letters. Different sysops had
different rules and some would delete messages that contained pro-
fanity or were only personal attacks or something. BBS's are the
greatest form of free speech. The problem was you needed a modem
and a computer to get into it. So it's not as free as it might be,
but compared to the newspapers, the newspapers print what they
choose, whereas on BBS's everything is printed, everything is pub-
lished. It's more of a dynamic medium than a static medium because
depending on the board there's different forms of dealing with
messages. For example, some boards after the first 50 messages go
by, the first message is deleted, so it's a dynamic thing. Unless
somebody prints out a copy or saves it to disk, it doesn't stay
static. Like on M-Net, things aren't deleted. They are deleted when
the message sysop of the area decides no one is interested anymore.
That's more of a choice method of deletion, than where it deletes
messages or the new one pops in, the old one pops out and it's
deleted. And even depending on what happens, it's still an impor-
tant medium.
There was, for example, just a debate about the war against IRAQ
on BBS's. Usually you didn't see where there was dissent. Whereas
on the computer, if people wanted to, they could debate it and
there was debate about it. A free medium. It's open access. Not
closed. It's also a field where the hobbyist still exists. There
are people who develop ways of using the modem, whether it's dif-
ferent compression techniques where you can send more and larger
files quicker, or whether it's different file protocols that send
them faster over phone lines. Those are constantly developing. That
is a hobbyist frontier now. Maybe there are less people than when
the computer started out. But it still exists. It's a frontier
that's not closed up yet. It's not definite yet. New things are
continuing to come out. For example, higher speed chips for the
serial ports in the computer so that the computer can talk to the
modem at a higher speed and everything.
To be continued in next issue
One Line Program In BASIC
10 FOR I=38 TO 255:PRINT"CHR$(";I;") = ";CHR$(I);" ";:NEXT
(Editor's Note: We welcome other one line programs from readers.)
Computers For The People A History
Part III
And it was indeed. "In January, 1975, six months after the
introduction of [Titus' computer-ed] the Mark-8, Popular Electron-
ics published the first installment of a two-part article on a much
more sophisticated computer, the Altair 8800," writes Stan Augarten
(in Bit by Bit, NY, 1984). "The Altair was the first... full
fledged personal computer on the market." And it was available in
kit form for $395,or in assembled form for $650. "Thousands of
orders poured into MITS", the manufacturer of the Altair, after the
article was published. The article was featured on the front cover
of the magazine: "Project Breakthrough: World's First Minicomputer
Kit to Rival Commercial Models Altair 8800. Save over $1000." ( p
270-273)
The firm was overwhelmed with orders. Auguarten explains, "If
you wanted to get the Altair to do something...you had to write a
program in machine code and enter it, bit by bit, via the toggle
switches on the front panel." It only had a 256-byte memory, too
small to do much with. "As a result," writes Augarten, "all you
could really do with the Altair was play with it, and one of its
first programs was a game that generated increasingly complicated
patterns of lights on the front panel to be duplicated by the
players." (p 274)
What the Altair needed was an interpreter -- a program that
would allow the machine's users to write programs in a simple
computer language like BASIC. Paul Allen, was a programmer working
in the Boston area. He had been a computer hacker during his teen
years. He was strolling through Harvard Square one day when he
noticed the January, 1975 issue of Popular Electronics on the
newsstand. He bought the magazine and went to visit his friend and
fellow hacker, William Gates, who was a freshman at Harvard. Allen
is reported to have greeted Gates waving the article in front of
Gates' face and saying "Look, it's going to happen! I told you this
was going to happen! And we're going to miss it.!" ( Paul
Freiberger and Michael Swaine, Fire in the Valley, Berkeley, 1984,
p 141) Freiberger and Swaine, describe what followed:
"Gates had to admit that his friend was right; it sure looked as
though the `something' they had been looking for had found them. He
immediately phoned MITS [producer of the Altair-ed ], and claimed
that he and his partner had a BASIC language usable on the Altair.
When Ed Roberts [owner of MITS - ed] who had heard a lot of such
promises asked Gates when he could come to Albuquerque to demon-
strate it, Gates looked at his childhood friend, took a deep
breath, and said, `Oh, in two or three weeks.' Gates put down the
receiver, turned to Allen and said: `I guess we should go buy a
manual.' They went straight to an electronics shop and purchased
Adam Osborne's manual on the 8080." (Ibid., p. 141)
Allen and Gates had committed themselves to producing a BASIC
language for a machine they had not yet even seen. But they were
both computer hackers from their junior high school days when they
had worked for companies looking for bugs in commercial programs.
Freiberger and Swine describe what happened next:
"For the next few weeks, Gates and Allen worked day and night on
the BASIC. As they wrote the program, they tried to determine the
minimal features of an acceptable BASIC.... There was no
established industry standard for BASIC or for any other software.
There was no industry. By deciding themselves what BASIC required,
Gates and Allen set a pattern for future software development that
lasted for about six years. Instead of researching the market, the
programmers simply decided, at the outset, what to put in." (p 141
- 142)
Freiberger and Swaine continue their description of those
significant days:
"Both men threw themselves completely into the project, staying
up late every night programming.... They were programming
half-asleep sometimes. Once when Gates nodded off, head on the
keys, he woke up suddenly, glanced at the screen, and immediately
began typing. Paul Allen decided Bill must have been programming in
his sleep and kept right on when he awoke." (p. 142)
Six weeks later, Allen flew to Albuquerque with their BASIC
interpreter. On the plane, he realized they hadn't written a
program to load the language into the computer. He quickly made up
a program on some scrap paper. Roberts met him at the airport and
drove him to his workplace. He loaded the program into the Altair
and it worked. Allen became MITS's software director. Gates soon
dropped out of Harvard and became a freelance software writer.
Gates and Allen later set up the Microsoft Corporation in Bellevue,
Washington, now one of the largest software companies in the world.
"The Altair inspired many hobbyists to design their own
computers," writes Augarten, p 276. One of these was Stephen
Wozniak. The ferment from the introduction of the Altair had led to
the formation of computer clubs all over the country, including one
in California's Silicon Valley. The atmosphere generated by the
clubs inspired hobbyists and hackers like Stephen Wozniak and Steve
Jobs to create and then market computers like the Apple. Woz, as
Steve Wozniak is known, explains how the Apple was created. He
bought an 8-bit microprocessor, the 6502 from MOS technology (now
part of Commodore), and he wrote a BASIC interpreter for it. The
device wasn't as powerful as the Altair, but it was cheaper and
less complicated. Then he built a circuit board and he and Steve
Jobs set out to market it as the Apple Computer. Later in 1977 they
introduced the Apple II with 16K of Ram for $1,195. Woz who loved
to play games had designed the computer with that purpose in mind.
The Apple II provided a commercial personal computer that people
and schools could begin to afford. But crucial to the development
of the Apple computer and to all the other advances made during
this fruitful period in the development of the personal computer
was the role played by the Homebrew Computer Club. Woz went to the
first meeting, in March, 1975. About 30 people showed up. But
fueled by the excitement generated by the Altair, the club expanded
rapidly. Soon the Club had 500 members. Meetings divided into a
"random-access" period during which the floor was thrown open to
anyone who had anything to say, and a "mapping" period when the
audience broke up into small groups devoted to common concerns.
Lee Felsenstein is the person credited with making the club the
important gathering it became. Felsenstein had been active in the
Free Speech Movement at the University of California at Berkeley.
He had been arrested in 1964 along with 755 other students for
sitting in at the University. He had worked on the Berkeley Barb
and the Berkeley Tribe, two newspapers of the student anti-war
movement of the 1960's.
Lee Felsenstein, like Ted Nelson whose book Computer Lib became
known as the Common Sense (a la Tom Paine) of the Technological
Revolution, was one of a group of technological revolutionaries who
were products of the radical 1960s. "A surprising number of them,"
write the authors of Fire in the Valley, "held political views that
would have shocked the local Rotary Club and almost all had no love
for IBM and the computer establishment." (Frieberger and Swaine, p108)
Keith Britton, another early member of the Homebrew Club,
recalls the atmosphere prevalent during the early days of the
personal computer movement. "There was a strong feeling, " he
writes, "that we were subversives. We were subverting the way the
giant corporations had run things. We were upsetting the estab-
lishment forcing our mores into the industry. I was amazed that we
could continue to meet without people arriving with bayonets to
arrest the lot of us." (Ibid. p 104)
Britton saw himself and the other members of the Homebrew Club
as "pivotal in an equivalent of the industrial revolution but more
profoundly important to the human race."(Ibid.,p 108)
To be continued
Pascal Program
Bridge_opening_bid_simulator
Uses Printer
(******************************************)
(* Author : Ian Carsten *)
(* *)
(* Last Modified : 11-18-90 *)
(* *)
(* Input: menu choices 1-8 (integer), *)
(* number or letter of card (char) and *)
(* first letter of suit (char) *)
(* *)
(* Output: menu of options, 13-card hand, *)
(* total points of hand, and opening bid *)
(* based on points and distribution of *)
(* cards in hand *)
(* *)
(* Purpose: To simulate the opening bid in*)
(* the card game of bridge as an aid in *)
(* learning the strategy of assigning *)
(* points and giving the opening bid *)
(* *)
(* Features: In the change card option, if*)
(* the user tries to remove a card which *)
(* is not in the hand or tries to add a *)
(* card which is already in the hand, then*)
(* an appropriate error message is printed*)
(* and the particular add or delete rou- *)
(* tine is repeated until a valid card *)
(* change is input. Further, at start-up, *)
(* since the handarray is empty, if the *)
(* user selects menu options 2,4,5,6, or 7*)
(* an empty hand message is printed and *)
(* the menu is presented to prevent mean- *)
(* ingless execution and/or output. *)
(* Although this program prevents copying *)
(* an empty hand (52 ' 0 '--string3) to a *)
(* file, nonetheless, an empty hand has *)
(* been stored under 'hand0.dat' to demon-*)
(* strate what would happen if an empty *)
(* were stored using DOS commands and some*)
(* one then tried to read the empty hand *)
(* into the handarray. In bidding the case*)
(* 13 <= points <= 18 and at least 5 cards*)
(* in 1 or two suits, the bid is: 1 of the*)
(* 5-card suit with the greatest number of*)
(* points. If each of 2 5-card suits have *)
(* the same number of points, then the bid*)
(* is 1 of the first 5-card suit in the *)
(* order Spade, Heart, Diamond, Club. *)
(* Since Givopeningbid calls Showpointsof-*)
(* hand, the bid can be used without first*)
(* getting the points *)
(******************************************)
{Declaration of global variables} type
string3 = string[3];
stringarray = array[1..4, 1..13] of
string3;
var
choice : integer; {user's choice from
menu}
emptyhand : boolean; {emptyhand = true
prevents meaningless output}
card : string3; {representation of card
in handarray}
handarray : stringarray; {4 x 13 array
representation of card hand}
points : integer; {points of hand, used
to determine bid}
cardsinsuit : array [1..4] of integer;
{number of cards in suit}
pointsinsuit : array [1..4] of integer;
{number of points in suit}
(******************************************)
(* Name : Initializearray *)
(* *)
(* Purpose : Initialize all elements of *)
(* handarray to the placeholder ' 0 ' *)
(* (string3) *)
(* *)
(* Preconditions : none *)
(* *)
(* Postconditions : all 52 elements of *)
(* handarray are ' 0 ' (string3) *)
(******************************************)
procedure Initializearray(var
handarray{input/output} :
stringarray);
var
row : integer;
col : integer;
begin {Initializearray}
for row := 1 to 4 do {set
each element of handarray to
0 (string3)}
begin {row-loop}
for col := 1 to 13 do
begin {col-loop}
handarray[row, col]
:= ' 0 ';
end; {col-loop}
end; {row-loop}
end; {Initializearray}
(******************************************)
(* Name : Testforemptyhand *)
(* *)
(* Purpose : Determines if hand- *)
(* array is empty *)
(* *)
(* Preconditions : handarray is either *)
(* empty (all elements are ' 0 ' ) or it *)
(* contains 13 cards and 39 placeholding *)
(* ' 0 ' *)
(* *)
(* Postconditions : emptyhand (boolean) is*)
(* true if hand empty otherwise emptyhand *)
(* is false *)
(******************************************)
procedure Testforemptyhand(hand-
array{input} : stringarray;
var emptyhand{output} :boolean);
var
row : integer;
col : integer;
begin
emptyhand := true; {initial-
ize}
for row := 1 to 4 do
begin {row-loop}
for col := 1 to 13 do
begin {col-loop}
if handarray[row,
col] <> ' 0 ' then
emptyhand := false
end; {col-loop}
end; {row-loop}
end; {Testforemptyhand}
(******************************************)
(* Name : Readcardandsuit *)
(* *)
(* Purpose : reads the two characters of *)
(* user-input card and suit which user *)
(* wishes to delete/add *)
(* *)
(* Preconditions : user has input card (1 *)
(* or, in the case of a '10', 2 characters*)
(* ), a space, and the first letter of the*)
(* suit, each of type char *)
(* *)
(* Postconditions : charcard and *)
(* charsuit have been assigned the *)
(* upper case of user-input card *)
(* and suit respectively *)
(******************************************)
procedure Readcardandsuit(var
charcard{input/output} : char;
var charsuit{input/output} :
char);
var
space : char;
charzero : char;
begin
read(charcard);
if charcard <> '1' then
readln(space, charsuit);
if charcard = '1' then {user-
input card is a '10'}
readln(charzero, space,
charsuit);
charcard := upcase(charcard);
charsuit := upcase(charsuit);
end;
(******************************************)
(* Name : Displayhand *)
(* *)
(* Purpose : To print the hand cur- *)
(* rently stored in handarray, with *)
(* rows right-justified, lowest *)
(* card to highest from left to *)
(* right (reverse order of array), *)
(* row 1 = Spades, row 2 = Hearts, *)
(* row 3 = Diamonds, and row 4 = *)
(* Clubs *)
(* *)
(* Preconditions : handarray has a *)
(* nonempty hand of 13 unique cards *)
(* and 39 placeholders (' 0 ') each *)
(* of type string3 *)
(* *)
(* Postconditions : the hand has *)
(* been printed *)
(******************************************)
procedure Displayhand(handarray
{input} : stringarray);
type
string10 = string[10];
var
row : integer;
col : integer;
suit : string10;
begin {Displayhand}
Testforemptyhand(handarray
{input}, emptyhand{output});
if (not emptyhand) then
begin {execute Displayhand--
nonempty hand}
for row := 1 to 4 do
begin {row-loop}
case row of {assign suit
based on its row number}
1 : suit := 'Spades ';
2 : suit := 'Hearts ';
3 : suit := 'Diamonds ';
4 : suit := 'Clubs ';
end; {case}
write(suit);
write(Lst, suit);
for col := 13 downto 1 do
begin
if handarray[row, col]
<> ' 0 ' then
begin {if}
write(handarray
[row, col]);
write(Lst, hand
array[row, col]);
end; {if}
end; {col-loop}
writeln;
writeln(Lst);
end; {row-loop}
writeln;
writeln(Lst);
end {execute Displayhand--non-
empty hand}
else
begin {else}
writeln('Current hand is
empty. Choose 1) or 3) from
menu to ');
writeln('get a nonempty
hand.');
writeln;
writeln(Lst, 'Current hand
is empty. Choose 1) or 3)
from menu to ');
writeln(Lst, 'get a non-
empty hand.');
writeln(Lst);
end; {else}
end; {Displayhand}
(******************************************)
(* Name : Convertcard *)
(* *)
(* Purpose : Converts card and suit (char)*)
(* input by user into their string equi- *)
(* valents. Also, it assigns the row and *)
(* col (integer) of the card (string3) in *)
(* handarray *)
(* *)
(* Preconditions : charcard and charsuit *)
(* have been assigned values (char) *)
(* *)
(* Postconditions : row, col (integer), *)
(* and card (string3) have been assigned *)
(* values *)
(******************************************)
procedure Convertcard( charcard
{input} : char;
charsuit{input} : char;
var row{output} : integer;
var col{output} : integer;
var card{output} : string3);
begin {Convertcard}
if upcase(charsuit) = 'S'
then {assign row number based
on suit input }
row := 1; {by user}
if upcase(charsuit) = 'H' then
row := 2;
if upcase(charsuit) = 'D' then
row := 3;
if upcase(charsuit) = 'C' then
row := 4;
if charcard = 'A' then {assign
col number and card based on
charcard}
begin {input by user}
card := ' A ';
col := 1;
end;
if charcard ='K' then
begin
card := ' K ';
col := 2;
end;
if charcard = 'Q'then
begin
card := ' Q ';
col := 3;
end;
if charcard = 'J' then
begin
card := ' J ';
col := 4;
end;
if charcard = '1' then
begin
card := '10 ';
col := 5;
end;
if charcard = '9' then
begin
card := ' 9 ';
col := 6;
end;
if charcard = '8' then
begin
card := ' 8 ';
col := 7;
end;
if charcard = '7' then
begin
card := ' 7 ';
col := 8;
end;
if charcard = '6' then
begin
card := ' 6 ';
col := 9;
end;
if charcard = '5' then
begin
card := ' 5 ';
col := 10;
end;
if charcard = '4' then
begin
card := ' 4 ';
col := 11;
end;
if charcard = '3' then
begin
card := ' 3 ';
col := 12;
end;
if charcard = '2' then
begin
card := ' 2 ';
col := 13;
end;
end; {Convertcard}
(******************************************)
(* Name : Translate *)
(* *)
(* Purpose : Translates cardnum (integer) *)
(* into its equivalent card (string3) and *)
(* assigns row (integer) and col (integer)*)
(* which determines its appropriate *)
(* location in handarray *)
(* *)
(* Preconditions : cardnum has been *)
(* assigned an integer value from 1-52 *)
(* *)
(* Postconditions : row has been assigned *)
(* an integer value from 1-4 and col has *)
(* been assigned an integer value from 1- *)
(* 13 and card (string3) has been assigned*)
(* a value *)
(******************************************)
procedure Translate(cardnum :
integer;
var row : integer;
var col : integer);
begin {Translate}
case cardnum of {assign row
based on cardnum}
1..13 : row := 1;
14..26 : row := 2;
27..39 : row := 3;
40..52 : row := 4;
end; {case-assign row}
case cardnum of {assign col and
card based on cardnum}
1,14,27,40 : begin
col := 1;
card := ' A '
end;
2,15,28,41 : begin
col := 2;
card := ' K '
end;
3,16,29,42 : begin
col := 3;
card := ' Q '
end;
4,17,30,43 : begin
col := 4;
card := ' J '
end;
5,18,31,44 : begin
col := 5;
card := '10 '
end;
6,19,32,45 : begin
col := 6;
card := ' 9 '
end;
7,20,33,46 : begin
col := 7;
card := ' 8 '
end;
8,21,34,47 : begin
col := 8;
card := ' 7 '
end;
9,22,35,48 : begin
col := 9;
card := ' 6 '
end;
10,23,36,49 : begin
col := 10;
card := ' 5 '
end;
11,24,37,50 : begin
col := 11;
card := ' 4 '
end;
12,25,38,51 : begin
col := 12;
card := ' 3 '
end;
13,26,39,52 : begin
col := 13;
card := ' 2 '
end;
end; {case-assign col and
card}
end; {Translate}
(******************************************)
(* Name : Showmenu *)
(* *)
(* Purpose : To print a menu of options *)
(* and prompt the user for his choice *)
(* *)
(* Preconditions : none *)
(* *)
(* Postconditions : menu and prompt *)
(* have been printed *)
(******************************************)
procedure Showmenu;
begin {Showmenu}
writeln('1) Generate a random
hand');
writeln('2) Save the current
hand (to a text file)');
writeln('3) Read a hand (from a
text file)');
writeln('4) Change a card in
the current hand');
writeln('5) Display the current
hand');
writeln('6) Show total points
of the hand');
writeln('7) Give the opening
bid with the current hand');
writeln('8) Quit');
writeln;
write('Enter your choice ');
writeln(Lst,'1) Generate a
random hand');
writeln(Lst,'2) Save the cur-
rent hand (to a text file)');
writeln(Lst,'3) Read a hand
(from a text file)');
writeln(Lst,'4) Change a card
in the current hand');
writeln(Lst,'5) Display the
current hand');
writeln(Lst,'6) Show total
points of the hand');
writeln(Lst,'7) Give the open-
ing bid with the current
hand');
writeln(Lst,'8) Quit');
writeln(Lst);
write(Lst,'Enter your choice
');
end; {Showmenu}
(******************************************)
(* Name : Generatehand *)
(* *)
(* Purpose : To generate 13 unique random *)
(* integers from 1 to 52, translate them *)
(* into string3 representing a hand of *)
(* cards in the game of bridge and store *)
(* the strings in in a 4 x 13 array *)
(* representing the card hand according to*)
(* the following scheme: *)
(* top to bottom: row 1 = Spades, row 2 = *)
(* Hearts, row 3 = Diamonds, row 4 = Clubs*)
(* left to right: col 1 = ' A ', col 2 = *)
(* ' K ',..., col 13 = ' 2 '. Also, all *)
(* positions not holding card will have *)
(* the string ' 0 ' (string3) as a *)
(* placeholder *)
(* *)
(* Preconditions : handarray either holds *)
(* 52 ' 0 ' placeholders or it holds 13 *)
(* cards and 39 ' 0 ' placeholders, each *)
(* of type string3 *)
(* *)
(* Postconditions : handarray has 13 *)
(* unique cards(string3) and 39 ' 0 ' *)
(* placeholders, each of type string3 *)
(******************************************)
procedure Generatehand(var hand-
array : stringarray);
type
string10 = string[10];
var
colindex : integer;
cardsinhand : integer; {number
of cards in hand}
inhand : boolean; {true if card
being checked is already in
hand}
cardnum : integer; {random
number of card}
row : integer;
col : integer;
suit : string10;
begin {Generatehand}
Initializearray(handarray);
{to ' 0 '}
cardsinhand := 0; {initialize
number of cards in hand}
while cardsinhand < 13 do
begin {while}
inhand := false; {reset to
test next cardnum}
cardnum := random(52) + 1;
Translate(cardnum, row,
col); {determines row, col}
for colindex := 1 to 13 do
begin {colindex-loop}
if handarray[row, col-
index] = card then
inhand := true;
end; {colindex-loop}
if (not inhand) then
begin {if-then}
handarray[row,col] :=
card; {add card to
handarray}
cardsinhand := cards
inhand + 1;
end; {if-then}
end; {while}
end; {Generatehand}
(******************************************)
(* Name : Savehandtofile *)
(* *)
(* Purpose : saves cardhand to filename *)
(* which user specifies just prior to save*)
(* *)
(* Preconditions : card hand exists and *)
(* may be empty or nonempty *)
(* *)
(* Postconditions : nonempty card hand in *)
(* handarray has been saved to user-input *)
(* filename *)
(******************************************)
procedure Savehandtofile(handarray
: stringarray);
type
string20 = string[20];
var
row : integer;
col : integer;
outfile : text;
cardfile : string20;
begin {Savehandtofile}
Testforemptyhand(handarray
{input}, emptyhand{output});
if (not emptyhand) then
begin {execute Savehandtofile-
-nonempty hand}
write('What is the name of
the card file? ');
write(Lst, 'What is the name
of the card file? ');
readln(cardfile);
writeln(Lst, ' ', cardfile);
assign(outfile, cardfile);
rewrite(outfile);
for row := 1 to 4 do
begin
for col := 1 to 13 do
begin {col-loop}
write(outfile, hand-
array[row, col]);
end; {col-loop}
writeln(outfile);
end; {row-loop}
close(outfile);
end {execute Savehandtofile--
nonempty hand}
else
begin
writeln('Current hand is
empty. Choose 1) or 3) from
menu to ');
writeln('get a nonempty
hand.');
writeln;
writeln(Lst, 'Current hand is
empty. Choose 1) or 3) from
menu to ');
writeln(Lst, 'get a nonempty
hand.');
writeln(Lst);
end;
end; {Savehandtofile}
(******************************************)
(* Name : Readhandfromfile *)
(* *)
(* Purpose : reads hand from user-input *)
(* filename to handarray *)
(* *)
(* Preconditions : user-input filename *)
(* exists and holds a card hand *)
(* *)
(* Postconditions : cardhand in filename *)
(* has been copied to handarray *)
(******************************************)
procedure Readhandfromfile(var
handarray : stringarray);
type
string20 = string[20];
var
row : integer;
col : integer;
outfile : text;
cardfile : string20;
begin {Readhandfromfile}
write('What is the name of
the file? ');
write(Lst, 'What is the name
of the file? ');
readln(cardfile);
write(Lst, ' ', cardfile);
assign(outfile, cardfile);
reset(outfile);
for row := 1 to 4 do
begin {row-loop}
for col := 1 to 13 do
begin {col-loop}
read(outfile, hand-
array[row, col]);
end; {col-loop}
readln(outfile);
end; {row-loop}
writeln(Lst);
close(outfile);
Testforemptyhand(handarray
{input}, emptyhand{output});
if (emptyhand) then
begin {if-emptyhand}
writeln('File ',cardfile,
' is empty. Choose 1) or
3) (with');
writeln('a nonempty file)
from menu to get a non-
empty hand.');
writeln;
writeln(Lst, 'File ',
cardfile, ' is empty.
Choose 1) or 3) (with');
writeln(Lst, 'a nonempty
file) from menu to get a
nonempty hand.');
writeln(Lst);
end; {if-emptyhand}
end; {Readhandfromfile}
(******************************************)
(* Name : Changecard *)
(* *)
(* Purpose : first deletes a userspeci- *)
(* fied card from handarray, then adds one*)
(* to the array *)
(* *)
(* Preconditions : handarray exists and *)
(* may be empty or nonempty (but Change- *)
(* card will not execute if handarray *)
(* empty) *)
(* *)
(* Postconditions : handarray has a *)
(* unique nonempty hand (if Change- *)
(* card executed) *)
(******************************************)
procedure Changecard(var handarray
: stringarray);
type
string8 = string[8];
var
charcard : char;
space : char;
charzero : char;
charsuit : char;
row : integer;
col : integer;
inhand : boolean;
suit : string8;
begin {Changecard}
Testforemptyhand(handarray
{input}, emptyhand{output});
if (not emptyhand) then
begin {execute Changecard--
nonempty hand}
{delete chosen card provided it is in hand}
inhand := false;
while (not inhand) do
begin {while-not inhand}
inhand := false;
write('What card do you
want to remove(card-
<space>suit) ? ');
write(Lst, 'What card do
you want to remove(card-
<space>suit) ? ');
Readcardandsuit(charcard,
charsuit);
Convertcard(charcard,
charsuit, row, col,
card);
case row of
1 : suit := 'Spades';
2 : suit := 'Hearts';
3 : suit := 'Diamonds';
4 : suit := 'Clubs';
end; {case}
writeln(Lst, card, ' ',
charsuit);
if (handarray[row, col] =
card) then
inhand := true;
if (inhand) then
begin {if-inhand}
handarray[row, col]
:= ' 0 '; {delete
card from hand}
end {if-inhand}
else
begin {else}
writeln(card, 'of ', suit,
' is not in hand');
writeln(Lst, card, 'of ',
suit, ' is not in hand');
end; {else}
end; {while-not inhand}
{add chosen card if not already in hand}
inhand := true;
while inhand do
begin {while-inhand}
inhand := true;
write('What card do you want
to add(card<space>suit) ? ');
write(Lst, 'What card do you
want to add(card<space>suit)
? ');
Readcardandsuit(charcard,
charsuit);
Convertcard(charcard, char-
suit, row, col, card);
case row of
1 : suit := 'Spades';
2 : suit := 'Hearts';
3 : suit := 'Diamonds';
4 : suit := 'Clubs';
end; {case}
writeln(Lst, card, ' ', char-
suit);
if (handarray[row, col] <>
card) then
inhand := false;
if (not inhand) then
begin {if}
handarray[row, col] :=
card; {add card to hand}
end {if}
else
begin {else}
writeln(card, 'of ', suit,
' is already in hand');
writeln(Lst, card, 'of ',
suit, ' is already in
hand');
end; {else}
end; {while-inhand}
end {execute Changecard--non-
empty hand}
else
begin {else}
writeln('Current hand is
empty. Choose 1) or 3) from
menu to ');
writeln('get a nonempty
hand.');
writeln;
writeln(Lst, 'Current hand is
empty. Choose 1) or 3) from
menu to ');
writeln(Lst, 'get a nonempty
hand.');
writeln(Lst);
end; {else}
end; {Changecard}
(******************************************)
(* Name : Showpointsofhand *)
(* *)
(* Purpose : calculates and prints the *)
(* points of the hand *)
(* *)
(* Preconditions : handarray has a unique *)
(* nonempty hand of card (this procedure *)
(* will not execute with an empty hand) *)
(* *)
(* Postconditions : points (integer) have *)
(* been assigned *)
(******************************************)
procedure Showpointsofhand(handarray
{input} : stringarray; var points-
{output} : integer );
var
row : integer;
col : integer;
prevpoints : integer;
begin {Showpointsofhand}
Testforemptyhand(handarray-
{input}, emptyhand{output});
if (not emptyhand) then
begin {execute Showpoints-
ofhand--nonempty hand}
points := 0;
prevpoints := 0;
for row := 1 to 4 do
begin {row-loop}
cardsinsuit[row] := 0;
for col := 1 to 13 do
begin {col-loop}
if handarray[row,
col] = ' A ' then
points := points
+ 4;
if handarray[row,
col] = ' K ' then
points := points
+ 3;
if handarray[row,
col] = ' Q ' then
points := points
+ 2;
if handarray[row,
col] = ' J ' then
points := points
+1;
if handarray[row,
col] <> ' 0 ' then
cardsinsuit[row]
:= cardsinsuit-
[row] + 1;
end; {col-loop}
case cardsinsuit[row]
of
0 : points := points
+ 2;
1 : points := points
+ 1;
end; {case}
pointsinsuit[row] :=
points - prevpoints;
prevpoints := points;
end; {row-loop}
if choice <> 7 then {choice
= 7, points passed to
Giveopeningbid}
begin {if-choice <> 7}
if points = 1 then
begin {if-points = 1}
writeln(points, '
point');
writeln(Lst,
points, ' point');
end {if-points = 1}
else
begin {else}
writeln(points, '
points');
writeln(Lst, points,
' points');
end; {else}
end; {if--choice <> 7}
end {execute Showpointsof-
hand--nonempty hand}
else
begin {else}
writeln('Current hand is
empty. Choose 1) or 3) from
menu to ');
writeln('get a nonempty
hand.');
writeln;
writeln(Lst, 'Current hand
is empty. Choose 1) or 3)
from menu to ');
writeln(Lst, 'get a
nonempty hand.');
writeln(Lst);
end; {else}
end; {Showpointsofhand}
(******************************************)
(* Name : Giveopeningbid *)
(* *)
(* Purpose : computes and prints the *)
(* opening bid *)
(* *)
(* Preconditions : handarray has a unique *)
(* nonempty hand (will not execute with an*)
(* empty hand *)
(* *)
(* Postconditions : opening bid has *)
(* been computed and printed *)
(******************************************)
procedure Giveopeningbid(var
points : integer);
type
string10 = string[10];
var
bid : string10;
suit : string10;
row : integer;
col : integer;
rowindex : integer;
cardsinrow : integer;
mostcardsinsuit : integer;
max : integer;
begin {Giveopeningbid}
Testforemptyhand(handarray-
{input}, emptyhand{output});
if (not emptyhand) then
begin {execute Giveopening-
bid--nonempty hand}
Showpointsofhand(hand-
array{input}, points-
{output});
mostcardsinsuit := 0;
cardsinrow := 0;
for row := 1 to 4 do
begin {row-loop}
for col := 1 to 13 do
begin {col-loop}
if handarray[row,
col] <> ' 0 '
then
cardsinrow :=
cardsinrow + 1
end; {col-loop}
if cardsinrow > most-
cardsinsuit then
begin
mostcardsinsuit :=
cardsinrow;
rowindex := row
end; {if}
cardsinrow := 0
end; {row-loop}
{case: causes bid to be 1 of which- }
{ever 5-card suit has highest number}
{of points. If 2 5-card suits have }
{same number of points, then suit of}
{lowest number rowindex will be bid }
case rowindex of
1 : suit := 'Spade';
2 : suit := 'Heart';
3 : suit := 'Diamond';
4 : suit := 'Club';
end; {case}
if points < 13 then
begin {bid-case 1}
writeln('pass');
writeln(Lst, 'pass');
end; {bid-case 1}
if (13 <= points) and
(points <= 18) and (most-
cardsinsuit >= 5) then
begin {bid-case 2}
max := 0;
for row := 1 to 4 do
begin {row-loop}
if (cardsinsuit[row] >= 5)
then
begin {if}
if pointsinsuit[row] >
max then
begin {if}
max := pointsin-
suit[row];
rowindex := row;
end; {if}
case rowindex of
1 : suit := ' Spade ';
2 : suit := ' Heart ';
3 : suit := ' Diamond ';
4 : suit := ' Club ';
end; {case}
end; {if}
end; {row-loop}
writeln('1 ', suit);
writeln(Lst, '1 ', suit);
end; {bid-case 2}
if (13 <= points) and
(points <= 15) and (most-
cardsinsuit < 5) then
begin {bid-case 3}
writeln('1 club');
writeln(Lst, '1 club');
end; {bid-case 3}
if (16 <= points) and (points
<= 18) and (most cardsinsuit < 5)
then begin
{bid-case4}
writeln('1 no trump');
writeln(Lst, '1 no trump');
end; {bid-case 4}
if 18 < points then
begin {bid-case 5}
writeln('2 clubs');
writeln(Lst, '2 clubs ');
end; {bid-case 5}
end {execute Giveopeningbid--
nonempty hand}
else
begin {else}
writeln('Current hand is empty.
Choose 1) or 3) from menu to ');
writeln('get a nonempty hand.');
writeln;
writeln(Lst, 'Current hand is
empty. Choose 1) or 3) from
menu to ');
writeln(Lst, 'get a nonempty
hand.');
writeln(Lst);
end; {else}
end; {Giveopeningbid}
(******************************************)
begin {main}
randomize;
choice := 0; {initialize to insure entry
into while loop}
Initializearray(handarray); while choice
<> 8 do
begin {while}
Showmenu;
readln(choice);
writeln(Lst,choice);
case choice of
1 : Generatehand(handarray);
2 : Savehandtofile(handarray);
3 : Readhandfromfile(handarray);
4 : Changecard(handarray);
5 : Displayhand(handarray);
6 : Showpointsofhand(handarray{in-
put}, points{output});
7 : Giveopeningbid(points);
else {quit if choice is 8}
end; {case}
end; {while}
end. {main}
Special Thanks to Tim Henderson for scanning the graphics and
helping to produce this newsletter. (the Editors)
----------------------------------
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| William Rohler |
| Norman O. Thompson |
| Michael Hauben |
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